COSEWIC Assessment and Update Status Report on the King Rail in Canada 2000
Table of Contents
COSEWIC status reports are working documents used in assigning the status of wildlife species suspected of being at risk. This report may be cited as follows:
Please note: Persons wishing to cite data in the report should refer to the report (and cite the author(s)); persons wishing to cite the COSEWIC status will refer to the assessment (and cite COSEWIC). A production note will be provided if additional information on the status report history is required.
COSEWIC 2000. COSEWIC assessment and update status report on the King Rail Rallus elegans in Canada. Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. Ottawa. vii + 10 pp.
(http://www.registrelep-sararegistry.gc.ca/sar/assessment/status_e.cfm)
James, R.D. 2000. Update COSEWIC status report on the King Rail Rallus elegans in Canada, in COSEWIC assessment and update status report on the King Rail Rallus elegans in Canada Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. Ottawa. 1-10 pp.
Previous Report:
Page, A.M. 1994. Update COSEWIC status report on the King Rail Rallus elegans in Canada. Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. Ottawa. 24 pp.
Cosens, S.E. 1985. COSEWIC status report on the King Rail Rallus elegans in Canada. Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. Ottawa. 64 pp.
Également disponible en français sous le titre Rapport du COSEPAC sur la situation du Râle élégant (Rallus elegans) au Canada –Mise à jour
Cover illustration:
King Rail -- illustration by Ross D. James.
©Minister of Public Works and Government Services Canada 2002
Catalogue No. CW69-14/3-2002E-IN
ISBN 0-662-32601-6
COSEWIC Assessment Summary
Common name : King Rail
Scientific name : Rallus elegans
Status : Endangered
Reason for designation : The population of this species in Canada is very small and shows continued decline. Few patches of remaining habitat are large enough and of sufficient quality to support this species. It is also considered endangered or critically imperiled in all adjacent states.
Occurrence : Ontario
Status history : Designated Special Concern in April 1985. Status re-examined and designated Endangered in April 1994. Status re-examined and confirmed in November 2000. Last assessment based on an updated status report.
COSEWIC Executive Summary
Description
The King Rail is a compact bird with a short tail, and short rounded wings. The legs are moderately long, and the beak is long and slightly decurved. The body is laterally compressed to help in moving through marsh vegetation where it lives. Males and females are similar with slate coloured crown and back, the latter with prominent tawny edges to the feathers, a white throat and buffy eye stripe, and chestnut underparts, with heavily barred black and white sides. It is a large rail about 38 cm long, much larger than the very similar Virginia Rail. The call is a series of up to 10 kek kek kek notes fairly evenly spaced. Juveniles are similar to adults, but darker above and duller brown below.
Distribution
It ranges over most of the eastern United States, except in the higher Allegheny Mountain areas. It also occurs along the Gulf coast of Mexico, although not into the Yucatan Peninsula, and on Cuba. However, in the United States now it is not common except close to the Gulf and Atlantic coasts, and in the lower Mississippi Valley. It breeds in Canada only in extreme southern Ontario. It is a migratory species, with any birds in the interior of the continent moving to the coasts. Most winter in the U.S. states along the Gulf coast and the Atlantic coast of the summer range.
Population size and trend
In the past 30 years the King Rail has experienced severe declines through most of its range. In the U.S., it was formerly common in the Lake Erie marshes of Ohio, and in the Lake St. Clair area of Michigan, but no longer is. It is now considered critically imperiled in all adjacent U.S. states. Apart from Louisiana and Florida it may be considered at least threatened. It was formerly common at least in the Lake St. Clair area of Ontario, and probably in all large marshes in the Lake Erie area. They may also have occurred in larger Lake Ontario marshes. But, by the mid-1980s there were estimated to be fewer than 300 pairs, and that estimate was based largely on the area of large marshes that might have suitable habitat.
By 1990, more extensive surveys suggested that there were fewer than 50 pairs, almost all concentrated in the Lake St. Clair marshes. A few pairs could still be found in four or five other Lake Erie marshes, but numbers varied and presence was irregular. A few scattered records came from as far north as the Bruce Peninsula and Lake Simcoe, and east to Presqu’ile Provincial Park, but such birds may not find mates, or return in subsequent years. Specific surveys for King Rail in 1997, 1998, and 1999 have confirmed that the population is still fewer than 50 pairs, mainly in the Walpole Island marshes.
Habitat
It occupies a wide variety of freshwater marshes in the breeding season. In many areas the presence of wild rice seems to be important for food, but sedge and cattail marshes and shrub swamp habitats are also used. Very large marshes, with more open water areas merging with shrubby areas are probably essential habitat in Canada. Minimum size requirements are unknown, but only in the largest marshes does it persist. It is thought that only about 10% of the original available marsh remains in the Lake St. Clair area where the largest component of the population persists. The other large marshes are isolated, making it more difficult for individual birds to find mates.
General biology
Birds return to Ontario by early May and males call to attract a mate. The male apparently engages in courtship feeding, but little is known of their behaviour, because of the secretive nature of the birds. They are more easily heard than seen. The size of the territory occupied can vary considerably depending upon quality, but no information is available from Ontario. Nests are placed in clumps of grasses and sedges that cover over the nest. Dead marsh vegetation is used to form a shallow cup into which about 8 to 11 eggs are laid, sometimes one to three more. Eggs are laid in late June or early July, usually one per day.
The incubation period is about 21 days, with both sexes assisting. Young birds are capable of leaving the nest and following their parents shortly after hatching. But, they are fed by parents almost exclusively for several days and to a large extent for at least 3 weeks. Young stay with parents and are fed to some extent for about 6 weeks. After that they may remain with adults for some time although feeding themselves. Usually only one brood is raised per season because of the long period of dependency by the young.
Hatching success is high, but only about 50% of young survive the first two weeks. Foxes, raccoons, crows, hawks, and owls of various types will take eggs and young birds, as well as adults. Diet consists of a variety of aquatic insects and crustaceans. Crayfish, frogs, fish, grasshoppers, crickets, small clams, and beetles form the largest part of the diet. Indigestible parts are ejected in pellets. Seeds of plants are also eaten, especially wild rice.
Because of its secretive nature, it is seldom seen, and little known by many people. It has been classified as a game bird throughout its range. Apparently few are taken anymore, even in the southern U.S., and in Canada it has probably not been hunted for years. Rail hunting is not popular in Canada, and the rarity of the species would eliminate it as a potential target.
Limiting factors
Loss of wetland habitat has been the greatest single factor in the decline of the King Rail in Ontario, and is the greatest threat to their continued existence. There may be fewer threats to large marshes in recent years, but there are still local incremental losses, disturbances, and degradation through sedimentation and runoff of pesticides, herbicides, and chemical fertilizers. Toxins may either reduce the available food, or indirectly poison the birds. Burning of parts of the remaining marsh habitat each year may delay breeding and thus reduce productivity, or render some habitat unuseable. The effects are unknown. The invasion of marshes by introduced plants such as phragmites or loosestrife can seriously change the character of the marsh and render it unsuitable. The presence of carp can also significantly reduce invertebrate prey for a number of wetland birds including rails.
Water depths in managed marshes may not provide the right requirements. Fluctuations in water levels that occur naturally rejuvenate marshes periodically, but this may not happen in managed marshes. Dikes interfere with the shoreline structure. King Rails prefer wet to dry situations and will be vulnerable to shoreline alterations that reduce the availability of adjacent wet meadows and upland habitat.
Predators like raccoons, crows, coyotes and foxes proliferate in human-dominated landscapes, and greatly increase mortality in marshes. Feral cats are apparently also a problem in the Lake St. Clair area. Habitat loss and degradation in wintering areas are probably also important contributing factors in the decline. Hunting and muskrat trapping in wintering areas also takes some birds, but the overall effect is poorly understood.
Protection
The King Rail has been considered a game bird throughout its range in the past. There is no longer any hunting season in Ontario. Hunting for rails is still permitted in 13 southern states. Hunting is not believed to cause serious losses, but if the few Ontario birds are the targets, it could have an important impact. The provincial wetlands policy now is offering protection to marshes in Ontario from direct destruction. But it will do little for indirect degradation and pollution. The species and its habitat have now been afforded protection under the Endangered Species Act of Ontario.
The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) determines the national status of wild species, subspecies, varieties, and nationally significant populations that are considered to be at risk in Canada. Designations are made on all native species for the following taxonomic groups: mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, lepidopterans, molluscs, vascular plants, lichens, and mosses.
COSEWIC comprises representatives from each provincial and territorial government wildlife agency, four federal agencies (Canadian Wildlife Service, Parks Canada Agency, Department of Fisheries and Oceans, and the Federal Biosystematic Partnership), three nonjurisdictional members and the co-chairs of the species specialist groups. The committee meets to consider status reports on candidate species.
Species: Any indigenous species, subspecies, variety, or geographically defined population of wild fauna and flora.
Extinct (X) : A species that no longer exists.
Extirpated (XT) : A species no longer existing in the wild in Canada, but occurring elsewhere.
Endangered (E) : A species facing imminent extirpation or extinction.
Threatened (T) : A species likely to become endangered if limiting factors are not reversed.
Special Concern (SC)* : A species of special concern because of characteristics that make it particularly sensitive to human activities or natural events.
Not at Risk (NAR)* : A species that has been evaluated and found to be not at risk.
Data Deficient (DD)*** : A species for which there is insufficient scientific information to support status designation.
* : Formerly described as “Vulnerable” from 1990 to 1999, or “Rare” prior to 1990.
** : Formerly described as “Not In Any Category”, or “No Designation Required.”
*** : Formerly described as “Indeterminate” from 1994 to 1999 or “ISIBD” (insufficient scientific information on which to base a designation) prior to 1994.
The Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) was created in 1977 as a result of a recommendation at the Federal-Provincial Wildlife Conference held in 1976. It arose from the need for a single, official, scientifically sound, national listing of wildlife species at risk. In 1978, COSEWIC designated its first species and produced its first list of Canadian species at risk. Species designated at meetings of the full committee are added to the list.
Environment Canada Environnement Canada
Canadian Wildlife Service Service canadien de la faune
The Canadian Wildlife Service, Environment Canada, provides full administrative and financial support to the COSEWIC Secretariat.
Introduction
Potentially the King Rail breeds throughout most of the eastern United States, except in higher reaches of the Allegheny Mountains, as well as along the Caribbean coast of Mexico (not into the Yucatan Peninsula), and on Cuba (Fig. 1). However, in the United States now, it is rather irregular and thinly scattered anywhere but the lower Mississippi Valley and near the Gulf and Atlantic coasts within the range outlined in Fig. 1 (Dickinson 1999). In Canada it breeds only in the extreme southern part of Ontario. It is a migratory species, moving out of most of its range, wintering in the circum-Gulf states and along the Atlantic coast of the summer range.
This is the largest rail in North America, and has been a game bird in the past throughout its range. There is no longer any hunting season in Ontario for rails. Although a rail season (species not differentiated) persists in 13 of the southern states, relatively few King Rails are taken any more (Cosens 1985, Meanley 1992). Other causes of death, and ultimately habitat losses, are far more important in limiting population size (Meanley 1992). It is noted for its secretive behaviour, hence it has been difficult to gather accurate population estimates. However, it has a loud call that is useful for locating it during a limited period of the breeding season.
The King Rail was assigned a vulnerable status by COSEWIC in 1985 (Cosens 1985), after a rough estimate of only about 300 pairs was made, based upon the area of marsh remaining that might serve as potential habitat. Following more detailed surveys during the Ontario breeding bird atlas (1981-1985), and the subsequent Rare Breeding Bird Program (1989-1991), it was apparent that the population was not nearly as large as thought. With an estimated population numbering fewer than 50 pairs, mainly in only one marsh, with a few in three or four other marshes, an Endangered status was adopted by COSEWIC (Page 1993).
Population Sizes and Trends
Overall the King Rail population would seem to be relatively secure, being listed as G4G5 by the Nature Conservancy. However, this ranking does not give a clear picture of its status in many parts of its range. Unfortunately it is detected on only relatively few breeding bird survey routes. But, range wide highly significant declines were indicated over the period 1966-1998 (on 35 routes) and in the 1980-1998 period (on 25 routes) (www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/bbs/trend/trend98.html). The Breeding Bird Survey is not well suited to surveying rails. Specific marsh surveys are required to detect them, and even these have difficulty obtaining realistic estimates with rare species.
In the United States, the King Rail has experienced severe declines in the northern part of its range in the past 30 years (Meanly 1992). In New York, breeding bird atlas surveys (1980-1985) had no confirmed breeding records, and only two possible records (Carroll 1988). In Pennsylvania, atlas surveys (1983-1989) indicated only two confirmed and one possible breeding reports (Brauning 1992). In Ohio, there were only four
confirmed and four possible records on atlas surveys (1982-1987) (Peterjohn and Rice 1991). In Michigan, from 1983 to 1988, atlas surveys found only one confirmed and six possible breeding locations (Brewer et al. 1991). The Nature Conservancy considers it critically imperiled (listed S1) in New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota; most of these states have also declared it endangered.
Historically the King Rail appeared to be very common in at least some southern Ontario marshes, particularly in the Lake St. Clair area (Morden and Saunders 1882). There is a suggestion that they were common in large marshes along the Lake Erie and Lake Ontario shorelines east to Prince Edward County (Snyder 1941). The full extent of the area occupied, or the real numbers present will never be known. However, since 1940, the only marshes for which breeding has been established are in the Lake St. Clair area, the Point Pelee area, Long Point marshes, and possibly Rondeau and Presqu’ile marshes (Page 1993). Based on the area available in these marshes, Cosens (1985) estimated a possible population of fewer than 300 pairs.
Breeding bird atlas surveys (1981-1985) and the Ontario rare breeding bird surveys (1989-1991) gave a clearer picture of numbers, and indicated that only between 20 and 52 pairs remained in the province by the early 1990s (Austen et al. 1994). These birds were largely concentrated in the Lake St. Clair marshes (Fig. 2), but even here a significant decline was believed to have taken place over a ten year period in the 1980s (Page 1993). Rondeau marshes may have hosted a few pairs (and rarely may still have a calling bird), but a wetland monitoring program in 1993 found none. The Long Point marshes were the only area in the Haldimand-Norfolk region known to regularly have breeding King Rails in recent years (McCracken 1987), but it was considered rare and irregular, with only about one to five pairs in more recent years (Page 1993). In the Point Pelee area, the species seems to be an erratic summer resident, with perhaps two or three pairs remaining in some years (Page 1993).
In eastern Ontario, at Prince Edward County marshes and Presqu’ile, the breeding bird atlas detected no birds, but subsequent observations suggest that a very few might still occasionally reside there in summer. Although once reported as common in Prince Edward County marshes (quoted in Snyder 1941), there is no real evidence of that. The most northeastern breeding record is at Oshawa (Speirs 1977, McCracken and Sutherland 1987). It is very possible that the calls of Virginia Rails were mistaken for those of the King Rail. If they had once been there Snyder did not find any evidence of them in his extensive summer collecting trip (Snyder 1941).
Scattered breeding season reports come from a number of other places in southern Ontario as far north as the Bruce Peninsula and Simcoe County. But often the birds do not return to these sites of small marshes and single birds, and most may never have had mates in such places.
The Marsh Monitoring Program in the Great Lakes Basin has not been particularly successful in clarifying the numbers of birds. Not all marshes are receiving sufficient coverage at appropriate times in order to be able to detect a rare species like the King Rail. In 1995 only 2 birds were found, none in 1996, and only 5 in 1997.
A more intensive search was undertaken in Ontario in 1997, specifically for King Rails. A total of 32 territorial males were found (Friesen et al. 1999, Kozlovic 1997), more than half of which were in the Walpole Island marshes. Three sites elsewhere on Lake St. Clair had from one to six each, and three sites along the Lake Erie Shore had one or two birds each (Friesen et al. 1999). It is not known if any of these birds had mates, particularly where there were only one or two birds. There may have been a few additional males calling, as not all areas that previously had recorded King Rails could be visited in time. But, an optimistic projection was that there were no more than 50 pairs, mainly in one site in the Lake St. Clair area – the Walpole Island Indian Reservation (Friesen et al. 1999).
In 1999, searches revealed only 25 birds calling in the Walpole Island – Lake St. Clair area marshes, and one each at Long Point and Presqu’ile marshes, for a total of 27 birds (T. Lang Pers. Comm.). One additional bird was known from the Bradford marshes (D. Sutherland Pers. Comm.). Compared to previous years, numbers were lower, and it is likely that fewer than 50 pairs remain in Canada. It was afforded protection under the Endangered Species Act of Ontario in 1999 (I. Bowman, Pers. Comm.).
Habitat
King Rails can occupy a variety of freshwater marshes and successional marsh-shrub swamp habitats (Meanly 1992). In wetter areas wild rice seems to be important (Cosens 1985), but sedge marshes and cattail marshes may also be used (Peck and James 1983). What is probably most important are large marshes with more open shallow water areas merging with shrubby areas (McCracken and Sutherland 1987). Minimum size requirements are unknown (Brown and Dinsmore 1986), but, only where there are large expanses of marsh, not overgrown with cattails, do birds return in successive years, and persist over time in Ontario.
The best habitat for King Rail in Ontario was in southwestern Ontario, where more than 80% of the wetland has been eliminated in total, with as much as 95% in some counties (Friesen et al. 1999, Page 1993). It is thought that only about 10% of the original presettlement marshes remain in the Lake St. Clair area (Page 1993), where the largest component of the King Rail population persists. The few remaining large wetlands are increasingly isolated as intervening marshes are drained, making it more difficult for birds to find mates, and probably reducing reproductive potential. Smaller wetlands are subject to higher predation rates. The quality of existing habitat is probably also suffering from pesticide contamination through agricultural runoff (Friesen et al. 1999). Little is known of the effects of chemical hazards on this species, but chemicals have apparently caused severe declines in other places (Meanly 1992). A new municipal airport has opened near Hillman Marsh in the Point Pelee area where King Rails have occurred in the past. Recreational boat and personal water craft traffic is increasing around several other marshes, enhancing the possibility of abandonment of habitat because of disturbance (L. Maynard, Pers. Comm.).
Loss of marshlands was continuing through the 1970s and 1980s in southwestern Ontario (Page 1994). Some is still being lost (B. Potter Pers. Comm. 1999). During dry years with low water levels, some areas are still being drained for agriculture. While some other areas may be abandoned to revert to marsh, the character of such areas has been altered in a way that may make them no longer useable by King Rails. Ontario now has a Wetlands Policy that should help to preserve remaining marshes. The Ministry of Natural Resources has been developing a monitoring protocol to evaluate the effectiveness of the policy, but at present there is no clear trend in overall marshland availability in the province (B. Potter Pers. Comm.).
A major limiting factor for King Rails on Walpole Island where the largest population remains may be burning. A large proportion of the marshland is burned each year (A. Woodliffe, Pers. Comm.). this means that birds returning in spring do not have cover to begin breeding. Rather late in the season they may be able to start, but productivity is likely to be reduced if there is any at all. The full extent of this loss of habitat has not been evaluated.
Evaluation and Proposed Status
In Canada the King Rail breeds only in southwestern Ontario. It is not known how many once inhabited Ontario marshes, nor to what extent these marshes were populated. However, it is clear that severe declines have taken place in the northern parts of the species range in this century (Meanley 1992). We also know that Ontario has suffered a tremendous loss of available habitat in the southwestern parts of the province (Snell 1987) where King Rails would have been most numerous.
The highest populations of King Rails are generally to be found in areas relatively close to the southern and eastern coasts of the United States, and in the lower Mississippi valley. In the interior of the continent, apart from the Mississippi River area, the only two areas known to support high densities were the Lake Erie marshes in Ohio and marshes in the Lake St. Clair area (Meanley 1992). Alarming declines have taken place in the Lake Erie marshes (Meanly 1992) and King Rail has been declared endangered in Ohio (Peterjohn and Rice 1991). Also on the U.S. side of the Lake St. Clair area, it has been considered endangered following declines there and in most midwestern states (Rabe 1991). In fact, it has been considered that apart form Florida and Louisiana, King Rails would be at least threatened throughout its range (Eddleman et al. 1988).
Estimates of numbers obtained during the Ontario breeding bird atlas of the early 1980s and the rare breeding bird surveys from 1989 to 1991 gave an estimate of only 20 to 52 pairs. Recent estimates from 1997 and 1998, based on detailed surveys of much of the historically known breeding areas, confirmed that an optimistic estimate would be 50 pairs (Friesen et al. 1999). An extensive survey in 1999 revealed fewer than 30 calling birds.
There has certainly not been any improvement in the population of King Rails in recent years in Canada. It is likely that very few have been missed in surveys. Habitat loss is considered to be the main cause of decline (McCracken and Sutherland 1987, Carroll 1988, Eddleman et al. 1988, Rabe 1991, Peterjohn and Rice 1991, Meanley 1992). While the loss of marsh habitat in southern Ontario may have slowed in the past decade, it may still be deteriorating as a result of pollution effects or ingrowth of cattails with artificially maintained water levels.
The situation in Ontario has not improved for King Rail in recent years. Maintaining the Endangered status is recommended.
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Colleen Hyslop for the opportunity to prepare this report, and for arranging funding through the Canadian Wildlife Service,Environment Canada. Laurie Maynard provided information on disturbances and censuses. Tony Lang made census numbers available. Don Sutherland commented on status, and provided information from Conservation Data Centers and the Natural Heritage Information Centre. Irene Bowman provided information on the Endangered Species Act in Ontario. Russ Weeber provided informaiton from the Marsh Monitoring Program in the Great Lakes basin. Helpful comments were received from Michel Gosselin
Literature Cited
Austen, M.J.W., M.D. Cadman, and R.D. James. 1994. Ontario birds at risk. Fed. Ont. Nat., Don Mills, and Long Point Bird Observ., Port Rowan.
Brauning, D.W. ed. 1992. Atlas of breeding birds in Pennsylvania. Univ. of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, PA.
Brewer, R, G.A. McPeek, and R.J. Adams, Jr. eds. 1991. The atlas of breeding birds of Michigan. Mich. State Univ. Press, East Lansing.
Brown, M. and J.J. Dinsmore. 1986. Implications of marsh size and isolation for marsh bird management. J. Wildl. Manage. 50:392-397.
Carroll, J.R. 1988. King Rail. In The atlas of breeding birds in New York State (R.F. Andrle and J.R. Carroll, eds.). Cornell Univ. Press, Ithaca, NY. Pp. 138-139.
Cosens, S.E. 1985. Status report on the King Rail (Rallus elegans) in Canada. COSEWIC, Ottawa.
Dickinson, M.B. ed. 1999. National Geographic field guide to the birds of North America. Third ed. Nat. Geogr. Soc., Wash. D.C.
Eddleman, W.R., F.L. Knopf, B.Meanley, F.A. Reid, and R. Zembal. 1988. Conservation of North American rallids. Wilson Bull. 100:458-475.
Friesen, L. 1999. The King Rail – almost gone but not forgotten. Long Point Bird Observ. and Ont. Progr. Newsletter 31(1):14.
Friesen, L., L. Maynard, P. Ashley, J. Haggeman, D. Lebedyk, D. McLachlin, D. Sutherland, J. McCracken, R. Weeber, and A. Woodliffe. 1999. National Recovery Plan for the King Rail. RENEW, Ottawa.
Kozlovic. D. 1997. The King Rail field survey in Ontario, 1997. Unpubl. Rept. prep. for the King Rail Recovery Team. Can. Wildl. Serv., Guelph.
Meanley, B. 1969. Natural History of the King Rail. North Amer. Fauna 67.
Meanley, B. 1992. King Rail (Rallus elegans). In The Birds of North America, No. 3 (A. Poole and F. Gill, eds.). The Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia, PA, and the Amer. Ornithol. Union, Wash., D.C.
McCracken, J.D. 1987. Annotated checklist to the birds of Haldimand-Norfolk. In The natural areas inventory of the Regional Municipality of Haldimand-Norfolk, Vol. 2. Norfolk Field Nat., Simcoe, ON. 52pp.
McCracken, J.D. and D.A. Sutherland. 1987. King Rail. In Atlas of the breeding birds of Ontario (M.D. Cadman, P.F.J. Eagles, and F.M. Helleiner, eds.). Univ. of Waterloo Press, Waterloo, ON. Pp.148-149.
Morden, J.A. and W.E. Saunders. 1882. List of the birds of western Ontario. Can. Sportsman and Naturalist 2:187, 192-194.
Page, A.M. 1994. Updated status report on the King Rail Rallus elegans in Canada. COSEWIC, Ottawa.
Peck, G.K. and R.D. James. 1983. Breeding birds of Ontario: nidiology and distribution. Vol. 1: nonpasserines. Misc. Publ., Roy. Ont. Mus, Toronto.
Peterjohn, B.G. and D.L. Rice. 1991. The Ohio breeding bird atlas. The Ohio Dept. Nat. Res., Columbus, OH.
Price, J., S. Droege, and A. Price. 1995. The summer atlas of North American birds. Academic Press, CA.
Rabe, M.L. 1991. King Rail (Rallus elegans). In the atlas of breeding birds of Michigan (R. Brewer, G.A. McPeek, and R.J. Adams, Jr., eds.). Mich. State Univ. Press, East Lansing. Pp. 192-193.
Snell, E. 1987. Wetland distribution and conversion in southern Ontario. Working Paper No. 48. Inland Waters and Lands Dir. Environ. Canada.
Snyder, L.L. 1941. The birds of Prince Edward County, Ontario. Univ. Toronto Studies, Biol. Ser. 48:25-92.
Speirs, J.M. 1977. Birds of Ontario County, Part 5: Turkey Vulture to Northern Phalarope. Fed. Ont. Nat., Don Mills.
The Author
Ross James is a Departmental Associate and former Curator of Ornithology at the Royal Ontario Museum in Toronto, Ontario. He studied the foraging behaviour of vireos in southern Ontario, and the ecological and behavioural relationships of Blue-headed and Yellow-throated Vireos for masters and doctoral research at the University of Toronto. He has also conducted bird population studies in boreal forest and southern woodlands and wetlands. He is interested in the status and distribution of birds in Ontario, authoring an Annotated checklist of Ontario Birds, and coauthoring two volumes on the Breeding Birds of Ontario. He was a committee member for and a contributor to the Atlas of Breeding Birds of Ontario, and a coauthor of Ontario Birds at Risk. He is an author of two accounts for the Birds of North America, and has published more than 80 papers on birds. He spent more than a decade as chair and cochair of the Birds Subcommittee of COSEWIC. In this capacity he was familiar with previous status reports and the status of this species.
Knowledgeable Persons
T. Lang. 3300 Highway 7, Vaughn, ON. L4K 4M3.
L. Maynard, Can. Wildl. Serv. Environmental Conservation Br., Guelph, ON. N1H 3N4.
D.A. Sutherland. Natural Heritage Information Centre.
Woodliffe. Min. Nat. Res., P.O. Box 1168, Chatham, ON. N7M 5L8.
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