Spring salamander (Gyrinophilus porphyriticus) management plan 2014: part 2

4.1 Threat Assessment

The threat assessment (Table 2) is conducted at the scale of the species’ current range. It is therefore a general assessment, and cannot be representative of certain local situations.

The most critical threats to the survival of the current Quebec Spring Salamander population are residential, recreation/tourism and wind power generation and groundwater pumping for residential, agricultural and commercial use. Other threats to the species include logging, fish introductions and/or stocking, climate change, agricultural production and alteration of surface water quality by acid rain and de-icing salts. Table 2 presents the assessment of these threats.

The threats that may have affected the Ontario population of Spring Salamander are not known, particularly because the only valid record of the species dates from 1877 and is geographically imprecise. Generally speaking, the Niagara Peninsula has experienced significant agricultural, industrial, commercial and residential growth for many years. Table 2 does not include the threats that likely contributed to the extirpation of the species in Ontario since they are largely unknown.

Table 2. Assessment of threats within the range of the current population, Quebec Accessible version of Table 2

Threat Level of Concern1 Extent Occurrence Frequency Severity2 Causal Certainty3
Changes in ecological dynamics or natural processes
Groundwater pumping for residential, agricultural and commercial use High Widespread Current Continuous High High
Logging Medium Widespread Current Seasonal Moderate High
Habitat loss or degradation
Residential, recreational/tourism and wind power generation High Widespread Current Continuous High High
Agricultural production Low Widespread Current Seasonal Unknown Medium
Alteration of surface water quality by acid rain and de-icing salts Low *Widespread
**Unknown
Unknown Unknown Moderate Medium
Alien, invasive or introduced species or genome
Fish introductions/ stocking Medium Localized Unknown Unknown Moderate High
Climate and natural disasters
Climate change Medium Widespread Anticipated Continuous Unknown Medium

1 Level of Concern: signifies that managing the threat is of (high, medium or low) concern for the recovery of the species, consistent with the population and distribution objectives. This criterion considers the assessment of all the information in the table.

2 Severity: reflects the population-level effect (High: very large population-level effect; Moderate; Low; Unknown).

3 Causal Certainty: reflects the degree of evidence that is known for the threat (High: available evidence strongly links the threat to stresses on population viability; medium: there is a correlation between the threat and population viability e.g., expert opinion; Low: the threat is assumed or plausible).

4.2 Description of Threats

The threats are presented in decreasing order of concern for the current Quebec population, the threats to the Ontario population being largely undocumented.

Threat 1. Residential, recreational/tourism and wind power generation
Residential, recreational/tourism and wind power generation could result in Spring Salamander habitat destruction (e.g. forest clearing), degradation (e.g. alteration of the hydrologic regime) or fragmentation (e.g. roads). It very often involves the addition of new water supply wells, which can affect water availability in this species’ habitat (see threat 2). These types of development can also increase the risk of direct mortality (e.g. road mortality) (Frenette 2008, COSEWIC 2011).

Since the early 1990s, residential, recreational/tourism and wind power generation has increased significantly within the range of the current Spring Salamander population (Quebec) (COSEWIC 2011). Residential development, in particular, is on the rise in the Green Mountain Foothills, and increased recreation and tourism development (e.g. ski hills, ATV trails, campgrounds) has become more widespread and is affecting a growing number of subpopulations (several examples are reported in COSEWIC (2011)). In addition, wind power generation is increasing in Quebec and the province has large wind resources within the species’ range, particularly in the Monteregian Hills, the Bécancour Hills and the White Mountain Foothills (Benoît and Wu 2004). Wind farm projects covering several hundred square kilometres are affecting certain subpopulations as well as many sectors that contain suitable Spring Salamander habitat (Anaïs Boutin, pers. comm.). The development and maintenance of road networks within the wind farms pose specific threats associated with wind energy generation.

Ontario’s Niagara Peninsula has experienced significant industrial, commercial and residential growth for many years (Environment Canada 2010). Major changes in land use, such as those mentioned above, together with other factors, including the lack of success in detecting the species despite significant search efforts (e.g. Yagi et al. 2009), led the Committee on the Status of Species at Risk in Ontario (COSSARO) to consider the Spring Salamander extirpated from Ontario (Committee on the Status of Species at Risk in Ontario 2010).

Threat 2. Groundwater pumping for residential, agricultural and commercial use
The recharge of most headwaters is largely controlled by water table inflow, which is critical to the maintenance of minimum annual flows[5] (Larocque and Pellerin 2006) and is a key factor in the quality of stream salamander habitat (Fournier 2008). Groundwater pumping for residential, agricultural and commercial purposes may affect the Spring Salamander by reducing water availability in its habitat and by modifying the natural water regime (Jutras 2003, Frenette 2008), which could cause habitat loss or degradation and significant mortality due to the species’ limited dispersal capacity. Individuals could also become isolated in remaining habitat fragments separated by habitat that is unsuitable to their survival. The reduction in water levels could also affect the species’ reproductive success and food resources.

Demand for groundwater within the range of the current population (Quebec) is growing, particularly in the southwest portion of its range (Adirondack Foothills, Green Mountain Foothills and Monteregian Hills). Groundwater pumping for agriculture (e.g. irrigation of orchards), recreation-tourism (e.g. campgrounds, golf courses) and drinking water supplies (e.g. bottling) are the main activities identified that could have an adverse effect on the species.

In the species’ historical range (Ontario), it is not known whether groundwater pumping for residential, agricultural and commercial use contributed to the extirpation of the species.

Threat 3. Logging
The effects of logging on the Spring Salamander could be significant (COSEWIC 2011). Erosion, which may be caused by certain forestry activities (e.g. construction and maintenance of the transportation network), could increase stream turbidity and sedimentation, which are known to adversely affect the survival of adult Spring Salamanders (Lowe et al. 2004) by reducing the availability of shelter and food resources (Waters 1995, Shannon 2000). Erosion can also lead to increased organic matter in the aquatic environment, which can reduce dissolved oxygen concentrations, creating conditions to which larvae would be particularly vulnerable (Bider and Matte 1994). Recruitment in stream salamanders, which include the Spring Salamander, could also be impaired if sediments are deposited on eggs (Bruce 1978). Logging can also lead to habitat fragmentation, and salamander populations that are isolated in small habitat fragments would be at a higher risk of disappearance (Ford et al.2002).

In Quebec, the area calculated by the index of area of occupancy for the Spring Salamander is primarily on lands where logging is permitted. The extent of this threat, however, has not been precisely determined. Within the species’ historical range (Ontario), it is not known whether logging contributed to the extirpation of the species.

Threat 4. Fish introductions/stocking
Predation by fish is the most serious threat to Spring Salamander larvae (COSEWIC 2011). Brook Trout is a particularly serious predator because its habitat requirements are similar to those of the Spring Salamander. The introduction of this species into habitat used by Spring Salamander reduces the growth rate and survival of individuals (Resetarits 1991, 1995, Lowe et al. 2004), resulting in a decline in population size (Lowe and Bolger 2002). Stocked fish can also transmit diseases or parasites to salamanders and to other organisms in the ecosystem (Bonin 2001, Jutras 2003).

Annual salmon stocking is carried out in several streams located within the species’ current range (Quebec), specifically downstream from certain streams used by the Spring Salamander (Ministère des Ressources naturelles et de la Faune 2008a). However, there is insufficient information to determine whether the stocked fish actually reach the areas in which the salamanders occur, and whether such areas were formerly free from predatory fish species (i.e. salmonids).

Within the species’ historical range (Ontario), it is not known whether fish introductions or stocking contributed to the extirpation of the species.

Threat 5. Climate change
This threat was not identified by COSEWIC (2011). Climate projections for North America show an increase in annual average temperature and changes in precipitation patterns, with more frequent intense events separated by longer drought periods. These projected changes will result in an increase in evaporation rates (losses of surface water and lowering of the water table) (Brooks 2009). Some streams, including those used by the Spring Salamander, could disappear or be altered (i.e. too little or too much water). Such changes would affect the diversity and abundance of the species that use these streams, particularly species that have limited dispersal capability, such as the Spring Salamander. It is also anticipated that the reproductive success of stream salamanders will be severely compromised (Brooks 2009). Moreover, Lowe (2012) observed an increase in precipitation in New Hampshire, where the Spring Salamander is known to occur, between 1999 and 2010. His results suggest that increasing precipitation is causing a decline in adult recruitment and could lead to the extirpation of certain local populations. According to Lowe, the increased volume and frequency of spring and fall floods due to the increase in precipitation contributes to higher mortality of metamorphosing individuals.

The streams used by the current population of Spring Salamander (Quebec) are likely to be affected by climate change.

Threat 6. Agricultural production
Certain types of agricultural production could pose a threat to the Spring Salamander because they may involve 1) clearing, conversion and fragmentation of forest habitat; 2) increased demand for water; 3) a decline in water quality (e.g. pollution, turbidity, sedimentation); and 4) disturbance or direct mortality of individuals.

In Quebec, over 40% of the area calculated by the index of area of occupancy of the Spring Salamander is located on land subject to the Act Respecting the Preservation of Agricultural Land and Agricultural Activities (R.S.Q., c. P-41.1). The types of crops most likely to adversely affect the Spring Salamander are believed to be berries (particularly blueberries), Christmas trees, grapes and apples. These crops can be grown at higher elevations than row crops. The Covey Hill (Adirondack Foothills) subpopulation of Spring Salamanders is believed to be particularly vulnerable to agricultural activities due to the presence of orchards and vineyards near habitats used by the species (Frenette 2008). Elsewhere in the Appalachians, agricultural activities are carried out on the periphery of the subpopulations and are not believed to pose an imminent threat.[6] However, agricultural development at high elevations is a possibility in the medium term and could compromise the persistence of some subpopulations.

In Ontario, agricultural production in Welland County and throughout the Niagara Peninsula has been increasing significantly for many years.  A total of 64% of the area of the Niagara Peninsula is devoted to agriculture (Niagara Peninsula Source Protection Area 2011). Due to major changes in land use, such as those observed for agricultural purposes, together with other factors, such as the lack of success in detecting the species despite not-insignificant search efforts (e.g. Yagi et al. 2009), COSSRO now considers the Spring Salamander to be extirpated from Ontario (Committee on the Status of Species at Risk in Ontario 2010).

Threat 7. Alteration of surface water quality caused by acid rain and de-icing salts
The permeable skin and aquatic nature of the Spring Salamander make it vulnerable to changes in water quality caused by acid rain and de-icing salts.

The acidification of streams (as a result of acid rain) adversely affects the survival and abundance of most amphibians (Petranka 1998). In Spring Salamanders, the negative effect of acid rain may be exacerbated by the very poor buffer capacity of headwater streams, which could pose a problem during heavy rain episodes (Green and Peloquin 2008). In addition, runoff of de-icing salts applied to roads in winter into Spring Salamander habitat could result in habitat degradation. Increased salinity of streams is known to affect the survival of the Yellow-spotted Salamander (Ambystoma maculatum) (Karraker et al. 2008), and all indications are that the effect is the same for the Spring Salamander, although the extent of the problem is unknown. The alteration of surface water quality caused by de-icing salts was not identified as a threat by COSEWIC (2011) and it has not been documented in the species’ range (current or historical).

5 The lowest level of flow occurring in a stream during the driest period of the year.

6 Note that maple syrup production is considered an agricultural activity under the Act Respecting the Preservation of Agricultural Land and Agricultural Activities. The extent of occurrence of the Spring Salamander is found within maple-syrup-producing regions where legal protection afforded to Sugar Maple stands may contribute to mitigating threats to the species’ habitat.

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